A scientific mindset

To understand scientific literature, you must know the scientific method. Without this, you might not recognize improper use of research. You may also misinterpret its conclusions and overstate findings.

First, know that the scientific method relies on careful observation and study. It seeks to find patterns. Hypotheses are first developed to test phenomena. They should align with current scientific principles. When tests are reproducible, they gain credibility. Other studies can then reference them and build on them to make new discoveries.

Science approaches the idea of truth by seeking evidence. With repeated experiments, we can find patterns to further understanding. But, discoveries are usually small. It takes years to confirm something as an objective fact, and multiple teams typically work towards these conclusions. For example, it took a long time to understand the gene, as we do today. We had to accumulate previous 'discoveries' to get our current knowledge.

Reading and Analyzing

When you are ready to read a scientific paper, there are important elements that you should be aware of. Most papers have a common structure: abstract, intro, methods, results, discussion, conclusion, and works cited. Some sections may have different names, depending on the author (e.g., 'methods' or 'materials and methods').

Follow along with our breakdown of this research paper: 

Zinck CB, Lloyd VK (2022) Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi in Atlantic Canadian wildlife. PLOS ONE 17(1): e0262229. 

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262229

You'll need internet access as well as the paper. You might not know some terms. That's okay. You can use a search engine for simple explanations or discuss them with classmates. 

Title

The title of an article is very important. It tells readers what the paper is about. This helps people decide if they will read it at all. When doing research, scientists will usually skim a long list of papers. The title tells them if the paper is relevant. The title should include what was studied, like which organism, what aspect of it was studied, and which variables were manipulated.

Abstract

An abstract is a brief summary of a paper, usually 150-200 words. It includes what was done, the results, and their significance. Typically, it skips background info. 

Introduction

The introduction provides all the background needed. It will explain why the experiment was done. It will outline what we already know and then identify the ‘problem’ or the knowledge gap. This section also usually contains the hypothesis or the objective of the study. This is a general hypothesis and is in no way a ‘statistical’ hypothesis. A statistical hypothesis states a null or alternative hypothesis for a test. This is used to evaluate the general hypothesis.

The introduction will have a heavy amount of information requiring many citations. This gives the reader all the information they need. It also suggests other papers to explore the topic further. It confirms the conclusions this paper's author has taken from these other papers. But don’t get lost in the introduction! It is meant to bring the reader up to speed and give context for the current research so focus on this! Also, this section, like most scientific writing, is in a neutral, formal tone and past tense.

Methods

The methods section, also called experimental or materials and methods, explains what was done in the experiments and which controls (variables) were used. This is crucial because other scientists must be able to replicate your experiment and achieve the same results. Here are key points to remember when writing or reviewing a paper:

1. Explain what was done (variables measured, how, controls, etc.)
2. Write in past tense.
3. Use the active voice as much as possible.
4. Include any mathematical equations or statistical tests used in the study (unless they are simple calculations ex. Concentration calculations).
5. If you are repeating a previously described method, cite its source. Don't re-describe it.
6. Don’t give out useless information! We don’t need to know what container you used for example so keep it to yourself (or to your lab book!).
7. Do not use a numbered list. If you would like to break it down you should create sub-sections.

Results

The results section must be free of comments, bias, or interpretations. It should only state the results and their statistical significance. Conclusions about the hypothesis belong in the discussion section.

A little bit about statistics…
A “P-value” or the probability value, is a number that is used to describe the likelihood of how likely you have a ‘false’ discovery. A common p-value is 0.05 and is generally accepted as statistically significant. Depending if your p-value is higher or lower than 0.05, you can accept or reject the null hypothesis (null meaning that there was no difference between your control parameter and the tested hypothesis).

P≥0.05 -> null hypothesis can be accepted
P≤0.05 -> null hypothesis can be rejected

Tables and figures

Tables and figures present data efficiently. Yet, their formatting is crucial. Include units and captions. Captions should explain enough so readers don't need to refer to the paper. You can then reference these tables and figures in the text. Here are key points:

1. Figure is often abbreviated to Fig
2. Use figures when possible instead of a table (it is far more visually appealing and easier to grasp the concepts). Figures are graphs, histograms, drawings, photographs, etc.
3. Figures and tables do not replace a written summary (the text provides the same understanding of the information with or without the figures and tables).
4. All results should be presented
5. Statements should be supported by results (presented in either figures or tables)
6. Statistical results should be presented
7. Tables should have a number and description above the table.
8. Figures should be numbered and have a description below the figure. Figures should also have a descriptive title.
9. Both tables and figures should have units and any other descriptive data information included.

Discussion and conclusions

The discussion section gives the author the chance to explain their data and results -- give some meaning to their results. These explanations should address the original question, objective or hypothesis and outline any biological significance. Here is some important information for the discussion section:

1. Discuss your results in relation to your hypothesis (was the hypothesis supported, or rejected).
2. Describe your results in relation to other studies (this helps you to give extra evidence of the phenomena you are trying to explain)
3. Give explanations for unexpected results and observations, give these as something that could be tested realistically.
4. Trends that aren't statistically significant should not be made a basis for conclusions even if you feel it is an observable trend
5. Try not to be redundant with the results sections

At the end, summarize the conclusions. This can be a few paragraphs for complex studies or just a few sentences for simpler ones.

Literature cited

All papers read or referenced by the author should be listed in this section for easy reference. This also is a great place to start if you are looking for more information on the topic of the paper- simply skim this section for titles of interest!

Critical thinking

Being critical and rejecting weak evidence is key. It keeps researchers honest and prevents false conclusions. This will help to keep you honest as a researcher and protect you from drawing false or misleading conclusions. Some scientists can give into pressure to publish papers, which means facing serious fallout. Take, for example, a researcher from a major Canadian university. He was a Canada 150 research chair member. Yet, he falsified data. This action severely damaged his career. For more details on Jonathan Pruitt's misconduct, check out this article.

Biases

When reading scientific papers, stay neutral to avoid false conclusions. We often have biases towards certain results. It's crucial to be aware of these when writing or reading. You can spot biases by checking the acknowledgments or funding sections. These sections reveal if a scientist faced pressure for specific results. This is called sponsorship bias or the 'funding effect.' Scientists might tweak results to please their funders. This practice harms academic integrity.

Another type of bias is confirmation bias. This happens when we seek answers to support our views. Researchers might look for evidence that backs their beliefs. They often ignore other possible explanations. This bias is usually unconscious. Yet, it's vital to avoid it for good research.